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Russian depicting the A chronology of Jesus aims to establish a for the events of the life of. Scholars have correlated and documents and astronomical calendars with the accounts to estimate dates for the major events in Jesus's life. Most scholars, on this basis, assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC. Hence, scholars estimate that Jesus began preaching and gathering followers around AD 28—29. According to the three Jesus continued preaching for at least one year, and according to for three years. Five methods have been used to estimate the date of the. One uses non-Christian sources such as and. Both methods result in AD 36 as an upper bound to the crucifixion. Thus, scholars generally agree that Jesus was between AD 30 and AD 36. In the method, the Apostle Peter's statement that the moon turned to blood at the crucifixion is taken to refer to the lunar eclipse of 3 April AD 33; although astronomers are discussing whether the eclipse was visible as far west as Jerusalem. The Christian gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus They were written as theological documents in the context of rather than historical chronicles, and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age. One indication that the gospels are theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one-third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem, also known as. Nevertheless, the gospels provide some details regarding events which can be clearly dated, so one can establish date ranges regarding major events in Jesus' life by comparison with independent sources. A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and sources, have been used in historical analyses of the chronology of Jesus. Virtually all modern historians agree that Jesus existed, and regard and as historical events, and assume that approximate ranges for these events can be estimated. Using these methods, most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC, and that Jesus' preaching began around AD 27—29 and lasted one to three years. They calculate the death of Jesus as having taken place between AD 30 and 36. See also: and The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC. Biblical references to King Herod's reign The two in the and differ substantially from each other, and are considered to have been written independently. Thus both Luke and Matthew independently associate Jesus' birth with the reign of. Matthew furthermore implies that Jesus was up to two years old when Herod reportedly ordered the , that is, the murder of all boys in Bethlehem up to the age of two Matt 2:16. Most scholars agree that Herod died in 4 BC, although some have argued for 1 BC. In conclusion, most scholars accept a birth year for Jesus between 6 and 4 BC. Subtracting 30 years, it appears that Jesus was born in 1-2 BC. This date is independently confirmed by John's reference in to the Temple being in its 46th year of construction during Passover when Jesus began his ministry, which corresponds to around 28—29 AD according to scholarly estimates. Other approaches The Gospel of John 8:57 mentions in passing an upper limit of 50 for Jesus' age when preaching: Then the Jews said to Him: You are not even fifty years old, and you claim to have seen Abraham? Fifty years was considered an adult lifetime. Some commentators have attempted to establish the date of birth by identifying the with some known astronomical or astrological phenomenon. For example, astronomer Michael Molnar proposed 17 April 6 BC as the likely date of the Nativity, since that date corresponded to the and lunar of , while it was in the. According to Molnar, to knowledgeable astrologers of this time, this highly unusual combination of events would have indicated that a regal personage would be or had been born in Judea. Authors Dugard and O'Reilly consider this event as the likely Star of Bethlehem. However, there are many possible phenomena and none seems to match the Gospel account exactly. Part of the showing Βέθαβαρά , calling it the place where John baptised One method for the estimation of the date of the beginning of the is based on the Gospel of Luke's specific statement in about the ministry of which preceded that of Jesus: Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene, in the highpriesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness. The reign of began on the death of his predecessor in September AD 14, implying that the ministry of John the Baptist began in late AD 28 or early AD 29. Riesner's alternative suggestion is that John the Baptist began his ministry in AD 26 or 27, because Tiberius ruled together with Augustus for two years before becoming the sole ruler. If so, the fifteenth year of Tiberius' reign would be counted from AD 12. Riesner's suggestion is however considered less likely, as all the major Roman historians who calculate the years of Tiberius' rule - namely Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio - count from AD 14 - the year of Augustus' death. In addition, coin evidence shows that Tiberius started to reign in AD 14. The New Testament presents as the precursor to Jesus and the as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry. Jesus' baptism account is followed directly by his. The Temple in Jerusalem and the Gospel of John , referred to in , as imagined in the. It is currently situated adjacent to the exhibit at the , Jerusalem. Another method for estimating the start of the ministry of Jesus without reliance on the is to relate the account in the about the visit of Jesus to in Jerusalem with historical data about the construction of the Temple. Herod's Temple in Jerusalem was an extensive and long term construction on the , which was never fully completed even by the time it was destroyed by the Romans in AD 70. Having built entire cities such as , Herod saw the construction of the Temple as a key, colossal monument. The dedication of the initial temple sometimes called the inner Temple followed a 17 or 18 month construction period, just after the visit of to Syria. But there is some uncertainty about how Josephus referred to and computed dates, which event marked the start of Herod's reign, and whether the initial date should refer to the inner Temple, or the subsequent construction. Hence various scholars arrive at slightly different dates for the exact date of the start of the Temple construction, varying by a few years in their final estimation of the date of the Temple visit. Given that it took 46 years of construction, the best scholarly estimate for when Jesus preached is around the year AD 29. Josephus' reference to John the Baptist Both the gospels and first-century historian , in his work , refer to killing , and to the marriage of Herod and , establishing two key connections between Josephus and the biblical episodes. Josephus refers to the imprisonment and execution of John the Baptist by Herod Antipas and that Herodias left her husband to marry Herod Antipas, in defiance of Jewish law. Josephus and the gospels differ, however, on the details and motives, e. Fresco by , 1435 The exact year of the marriage of and is subject to debate among scholars. While some scholars place the year of the marriage in the range AD 27-31, others have approximated a date as late as AD 35, although such a late date has much less support. In his analysis of Herod's life, estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD 30-31. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about AD 31-32. Josephus stated that the AD 36 defeat of Herod Antipas in the conflicts with of was widely considered by the Jews of the time as misfortune brought about by Herod's unjust execution of John the Baptist. Given that John the Baptist was executed before the defeat of Herod by Aretas, and based on the scholarly estimates for the approximate date of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias, the last part of the ministry of John the Baptist and hence parts of the ministry of Jesus fall within the historical time span of AD 28-35, with the later year 35 having the least support among scholars. Roman senator and historian wrote of the crucifixion of Christ Jesus in the , a history of the Roman Empire during the first century. All four state that Jesus was crucified during the prefecture of , the Roman governor of. In the written about AD 93 , states that Jesus was crucified on the orders of Pilate. Most scholars agree that while this reference includes some later Christian interpolations, it originally included a reference to the execution of Jesus under Pilate. In the second century the Roman historian in c. AD 116 , of Christians by Nero and stated that Jesus had been executed on the orders of Pilate during the reign of Emperor from 18 September AD 14 - 16 March AD 37. According to Flavius Josephus, Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from AD 26 until he was replaced by , either in AD 36 or AD 37, establishing the date of the death of Jesus between AD 26 and AD 37. Reign of Herod Antipas See also: In the , while Jesus is in , Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean and thus is under the jurisdiction of. Given that Herod was in Jerusalem at that time, Pilate decided to send Jesus to Herod to be tried. This episode is described only in the. While some scholars have questioned the authenticity of this episode, given that it is unique to the Gospel of Luke, the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia states that it fits well with the theme of the gospel. Herod Antipas, a son of , was born before 20 BC and was exiled in the summer of AD 39 following a lengthy intrigue involving and , the grandson of his father. This episode indicates that Jesus' death took place before AD 39. Conversion of Paul The in , Greece, where the was discovered early in the 20th century. Another approach to estimating an for the year of death of Jesus is the estimation of the date of which the New Testament accounts place some time after the death of Jesus. Paul's conversion is discussed in both the and in the. In the , Paul refers to his conversion. The includes three separate references to his conversion experience, in , and. Estimating the year of Paul's conversion relies on working backwards from his trial before in Greece around AD 51—52, a date derived from the discovery and publication, in 1905, of four stone fragments as part of the , at across the Gulf from. The inscription preserves a letter from Claudius concerning Gallio dated during the 26th acclamation of Claudius, sometime between January 51 and August 52. On this basis, most historians estimate that Gallio brother of became between the spring of AD 51 and the summer of AD 52, and that his position ended no later than AD 53. The trial of Paul is generally assumed to be in the earlier part of Gallio's tenure, based on the reference to his meeting in Corinth with , who had been recently expelled from Rome based on Emperor Claudius' , which is dated to AD 49-50. According to the New Testament, Paul spent eighteen months in Corinth, approximately seventeen years after his conversion. The generally accepted scholarly estimate for the date of conversion of Paul is AD 33-36, placing the death of Jesus before this date range. Astronomical analysis Newton's method All four Gospels agree to within about a day that the crucifixion was at the time of Passover, and all four Gospels agree that Jesus died a few hours before the commencement of the Jewish Sabbath, i. In the official festival calendar of Judaea, as used by the priests of the temple, Passover time was specified precisely. The Passover meal commenced at moonrise necessarily a full moon that evening, i. There is an apparent discrepancy of one day in the Gospel accounts of the crucifixion which has been the subject of considerable debate. In John's Gospel, it is stated that the day of Jesus' trial and execution was the day before Passover John 18 v. The correct interpretation of the Synoptics is less clear. Thus some scholars believe that all 4 Gospels place the crucifixion on Friday, 14 Nisan, others believe that according to the Synoptics it occurred on Friday, 15 Nisan. The problem that then has to be solved is that of determining in which of the years of the reign of Pontius Pilate AD 26-36 the 14th and 15th Nisan fell on a Friday. In 1733, considered only the range AD 31-36 and calculated that the Friday requirement is met only on Friday 3 April AD 33, and 23 April AD 34. The latter date can only have fallen on a Friday if an exceptional leap month had been introduced that year, but this was favoured by Newton. In the twentieth century, the standard view became that of , who in 1910 suggested 3 April AD 33 on the basis of its coincidence with a lunar eclipse. In the 1990s and J. Pratt, following a similar method, arrived at the same date. Also according to and Waddington, the lunar Jewish calendar leaves only two plausible dates within the reign of Pontius Pilate for Jesus' death, and both of these would have been a 14 Nisan as specified in the Gospel of John: Friday 7 April AD 30, and Friday 3 April AD 33. A more refined calculation takes into account that the Jewish calendar was based not on astronomical calculation but on observation, following criticism that it is possible to establish the on a particular day two thousand years ago but not whether it was obscured by clouds or haze. Including the possibility of a cloudy sky obscuring the moon, and assuming that the Jewish authorities would be aware that lunar months can only be either 29 or 30 days long the time from one new moon to the next is 29. Another potential date arises if the Jewish authorities happened to add an irregular lunar leap month to compensate for a meteorologically delayed harvest season: this would yield one additional possibility during Pilate's time, which is Newton's favoured date of 23 April AD 34. Colin Humphreys calculates but rejects these AD 27 and AD 34 dates on the basis that the former is much too early to be compatible with Luke 3:1-2, and spring AD 34 is probably too late to be compatible with Paul's timeline, confirming Friday 7 April AD 30, and Friday 3 April AD 33 as the two feasible crucifixion dates. Eclipse method , 4 May 2004. Red hue caused by diffraction of sunlight through Earth's atmosphere. There was in fact a lunar eclipse on 3 April AD 33, a date which coincides with one of Newton's astronomically possible crucifixion dates see above. Humphreys and Waddington have calculated that in ancient Jerusalem this eclipse would have been visible at moonrise at 6. They propose that a large proportion of the Jewish population would have witnessed this eclipse as they would have been waiting for sunset in the west and immediately afterwards the rise of the anticipated full moon in the east as the prescribed signal to start their household Passover meals. Humphreys and Waddington therefore suggest a scenario where Jesus was crucified and died at 3pm on 3 April AD 33, followed by a red partial lunar eclipse at moonrise at 6. Astronomer agrees with the eclipse date but disputes that the eclipsed moon would have been visible by the time the moon had risen in Jerusalem. A potentially related issue involves the reference in the to a three-hour period of darkness over the whole land on the day of the crucifixion according to Luke 23:45 τοῦ ἡλίου ἐκλιπόντος - the sun was darkened. Although some scholars view this as a literary device common among ancient writers rather than a description of an actual event, other writers have attempted to identify a meteorological event or a datable astronomical phenomenon which this could have referred to. It could not have been a , since this could not take place during the crucifixion at Passover, and in any case solar eclipses take minutes, not hours. In 1983, astronomers and Waddington noted that the reference to a solar eclipse is missing in some versions of Luke and argued that the solar eclipse was a later faulty scribal amendment of what was actually the lunar eclipse of AD 33. This is a claim which historian David Henige describes as 'undefended' and 'indefensible'. Humphreys and a number of scholars have alternatively argued for the sun's darkening to have been caused by a , i. He also alleges that Humphreys uses two very dubious sources, namely Pilate's alleged letter to Tiberius and the writings of the fifth-century Bishop Cyril of Alexandria, which Humphreys however classifies as forgery or contemporary interpretation indicative of a tradition at the time. Double Passover method The rising full moon at sunset signals the start of the Passover meal. This modified Jewish calendar is in use among most Jews today. One basic difference lies in the determination of the first day of the new month: while the Samaritans use the calculated because by definition invisible new moon, mainstream Jews use the first observation of the thin crescent of the waxing moon which is on average 30 hours later. The other basic difference lies in the fact that the Samaritan calendar uses a sunrise-to-sunrise day, while the official Jewish calendar uses a sunset-to-sunset day. Due to these differences, the Samaritan Passover is normally one day earlier than the Jewish Passover and in some years two or more days earlier. The crucifixion year of Jesus can then be calculated by asking the question in which of the two astronomically possible years of AD 30 and AD 33 is there a time gap between the last supper and the crucifixion which is compatible with the gospel timeline of Jesus' last 6 days. The astronomical calculations show that a hypothetical AD 30 date would require an incompatible Monday Last Supper, while AD 33 offers a compatible Last Supper on Wednesday, 1 April AD 33, followed by a compatible crucifixion on Friday, 3 April AD 33. Given these assumptions he argues that the calculated date of Wednesday 1 April AD 33 for the Last Supper allows all four gospel accounts to be astronomically correct, with Jesus celebrating Passover two days before his death according to the original Mosaic calendar, and the Jewish authorities celebrating Passover just after the crucifixion, using the modified Babylonian calendar. In contrast, the Christian church tradition of celebrating the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday would be an anachronism. The calculated chronology incidentally supports John's narrative that Jesus died at the same hour Friday 3pm on 3 April AD 33 that the Passover lambs were slaughtered. Also, some scholars have argued that it is unlikely that the many events of the Passion could have taken place in the span from midnight to about 9 o'clock in the morning. The consensus of modern scholarship agrees with the four Gospels that the New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday, although a Wednesday crucifixion has also been proposed. The debate can be summarised as follows. In the Synoptic account, the takes place on the first night of , defined in the as occurring after daylight on , and the crucifixion is on 15 Nisan. However, in the trial of Jesus takes place before the Passover meal and the sentencing takes place on the day of Preparation, before Passover. John's account places the crucifixion on 14 Nisan, since the law mandated the lamb had to be sacrificed between 3:00 pm and 5:00 pm and eaten before midnight on that day. This understanding fits well with , in which Jesus entered to identify himself as the on Nisan 10 was crucified and died at 3:00 in the afternoon of Nisan 14, at the same time the High Priest would have sacrificed the Paschal lamb, and rose before dawn the morning of Nisan 16, as a type of offering of the. It is problematic to reconcile the chronology presented by John with the Synoptic tradition that the was a Passover meal. Some scholars have presented arguments to reconcile the accounts, although , reviewing these, concluded that they can not be easily reconciled. One involves the suggestion that for Jesus and his disciples, the Passover could have begun at dawn Thursday, while for traditional Jews it would not have begun until dusk that same day. Another is that John followed the Roman practice of calculating the new day beginning at midnight, rather than the Jewish reckoning. However, this Roman practice was used only for dating contracts and leases. Some have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available. His solution is that the synoptic gospels and John's gospel use two distinct calendars the official Jewish lunar calendar, and what is today the Samaritan lunar calendar, the latter used in Jesus' day also by the Essenes of Qumran and the Zealots. Humphrey's proposal was preceded in 1957 by the work of Annie Jaubert who suggested that Jesus held his Last Supper at Passover time according to the Qumran solar calendar. Humphreys rejects Jaubert's conclusion by demonstrating that the Qumran solar reckoning would always place Jesus' Last Supper after the Jewish Passover, in contradiction to all four gospels. Instead, Humphreys points out that the Essene community at Qumran additionally used a lunar calendar, itself evidently based on the Egyptian liturgical lunar calendar. Humphreys suggests that the reason why his two-calendar solution had not been discovered earlier is a widespread scholarly ignorance of the existence of the Egyptian liturgical lunar calendar used alongside the well-known Egyptian administrative solar calendar, and presumably the basis for the 13th-century BC Jewish lunar calendar , and b the fact that the modern surviving small community of did not reveal the calculations underlying their lunar calendar preserving the Egyptian reckoning to outsiders until the 1960s. In a review of Humphreys' book, theologian William R Telford points out that the non-astronomical parts of his argument are based on the assumption that the chronologies described in the New Testament are historical and based on eyewitness testimony. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, v. An Introduction to the New Testament, 54, 56. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House. Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels, p. Christian History, 17 3 , 12—20. The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, volume 1, pages 67-69. Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies, pages 113-129. The Historical Jesus in Context, pages 55-58. Herodias: at home in that fox's den, pages 25-30. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, volume E-J, pages 694-695. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. The Word in this world, page 112. The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament, pages 77-79. Paul's early period: chronology, mission strategy, theology pages 19-27. Page 27 has a table of various scholarly estimates. The Date of the Crucifixion. Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation, 37. The Death of the Messiah: from Gethsemane to the Grave: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels. New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library. Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi, pages 730-731. London: Penguin Books: 3. Ehrman, 2011 Forged : writing in the name of God. Regent College Publishing: 19. Herod the Great: Statesman, Visionary, Tyrant. An Introduction to the New Testament. Brown, 101 Questions and Answers on the Bible, Paulist Press 2003 , page 79. Köstenberger, John Baker Academic, 2004 , page 110. This is the view argued by Meier as by most scholars today particularly since S. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D Wm. Graeme Waddington, March 1985. American Scientific Affiliation website. Retrieved 17 January 2014. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. Nothaft, Dating the Passion: The Life of Jesus and the Emergence of Scientific Chronology 200—1600 page 25. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus Penguin, 1993 285-286. Lunar visibility and the crucifixion. Glare and celestial visibility. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 103, 645-660. The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse. Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 113 6 , 343-348. Historical evidence and argument. University of Wisconsin Press. The Journal of Theological Studies. Retrieved 29 April 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2011. Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. John : the authorised version with introduction and notes 1881, page 282. Retrieved 17 January 2014. Westminster John Knox Press.
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